Biorefineries of carbon dioxide: From carbon capture and storage (CCS) to bioenergies production

Greenhouse gas emissions have several adverse environmental effects, like pollution and climate change. Currently applied carbon capture and storage (CCS) methods are not cost effective and have not been proven safe for long term sequestration. Another attractive approach is CO₂ valorization, whereby CO₂ can be captured in the form of biomass via photosynthesis and is subsequently converted into various form of bioenergy. This article summarizes the current carbon sequestration and utilization technologies, while emphasizing the value of bioconversion of CO₂. In particular, CO₂ sequestration by terrestrial plants, microalgae and other microorganisms are discussed. Prospects and challenges for CO₂ conversion are addressed. The aim of this review is to provide comprehensive knowledge and updated information on the current advances in biological CO₂ sequestration and valorization, which are essential if this approach is to achieve environmental sustainability and economic feasibility.